Writing is a complex activeness. Understanding this complication is the fundamental to effective teaching of writing. In this chapter, I will present a brief historical overview of diverse approaches to didactics writing, including the controlled approach, process arroyo, and genre approach. Essential to implementing these approaches is understanding the recursive nature of the writing process and knowing what constitutes competent writing. Indeed, writing competence encompasses not only give-and-take choices, sentence variations, punctuation choices, and other linguistic tools for cohesion and coherence, but as well ways to structure and develop arguments at the micro and macro levels. Information technology is important to prefer a writing pedagogy that explicitly trains students in the kinds of thinking processes that are conducive to expert writing. To this end, this chapter presents the socio-cognitive approach to educational activity writing. I volition talk over guiding principles and pedagogical implications of the approach. I volition as well highlight strategies for enhancing the quality of 2nd language writing, drawing upon insights from the literature of writing inquiry.

Bring together for free

1

Cheung, Y. Fifty. (2016). Education Writing. In W. A. Renandya, & H. P. Widodo (Eds.), English Language

Teaching Today: Building a Closer Link Between Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Springer

International.

Chapter 12

Teaching Writing

Yin Ling Cheung

Abstruse

Writing is a complex activity. Understanding this complexity is the key to constructive teaching of

writing. In this affiliate, I will present a brief historical overview of various approaches to

teaching writing, including the controlled approach, process approach, and genre arroyo.

Essential to implementing these approaches is understanding the recursive nature of the writing

process and knowing what constitutes competent writing. Indeed, writing competence

encompasses not only word choices, sentence variations, punctuation choices, and other

linguistic tools for cohesion and coherence, only also ways to structure and develop arguments at

the micro and macro levels. It is important to adopt a writing pedagogy that explicitly trains

students in the kinds of thinking processes that are conducive to good writing. To this finish, thidue south

chapter presents the socio-cognitive approach to pedagogy writing. I volition discuss guiding

principles and pedagogical implications of the arroyo. I will as well highlight strategies for

enhancing the quality of second language writing, drawing upon insights from the literature of

writing inquiry.

Keywords: Southwardecond linguistic communication writing, recursive nature, cohesion and coherence, thinking

processes, macro-rhetorical goal, socio-cognitive approach.

12.i Introduction

two

When I teach the 2d Languhistoric period Academic Writing course to English language majors at my university,

I oft acquire from my pre- service educatee teachers that they are unaware of the various

approaches to teaching English- as-a-2d- linguistic communication writing. This is not surprising perhaps, as

many pre-service teachers are trained as English Language teachers, rather than writing teachers

(Cheung, 2011; Lee, 2008). Many of us acquire how to teach writing through imitating our

favourite writing teachers, or through mentorship by senior colleagues in our workplace.

Still, information technology may be beneficial for teachers to have a systematic understanding of different

approaches to teaching academic writing.

There have been paradigm shifts in approaches to teaching academic writing over thursdaydue east terminal few

decades (Paltridge, Harbon, Hirsh, Shen, Stevenson, Phakiti, & Woodrow, 2009). From the mid -

1940s to mid-1960s, controlled composition was practiced widely in writing classes. Such a

educational activity arroyo aim s to improve the accuracy of students' written piece of work s, based on a

behaviorist view that repetition and imitation will lead to habit formation (e.one thousand., writing

grammatically correct sentences). An example of controlled composition is for teachers to requite

sample sentences of a called structure , and then students are tasked to write a few sentences

following that pattern. After in the mid -1960s, English Linguistic communication teachers realized that students

needed to focus not only on grammatical accuracy of the sentences they produced but besides the

functions of writing. Thus, teachers adopted a rhetorical function arroyo where they shifted

the teaching focus fro1000 sentence level accuracy to a discourse level that emphasized the

purposes of writing such every bit description, comparison, and contrast. Since the 1970s, the procedure

approach to writing has gained popularity. Instead of focusing primarily on the form/correctness

of the writing, teachers at present encourage students to pay attending to macro -level communicative

purposes. The aim of the process approach is to let the students' ideas determine the class of a piece

of writing (Silva, 1990).

Given that writing is socially- situated in nature, notwithstanding another arroyo to writing instruction was

introduced to assist students acquire the genres that they needed to chiliadaster in club to succeed in

writing about specific topics . Nether this genre approach, through reading model texts from a

subject area and guided practice, students master the language, text construction, and soapbox

practices for specific kinds of communication. We should accept note that understanding the genre

three

approach depends on genre traditions, such as English for Specific Purposes (UK), New Rhetoric

(The states), and Systemic F unctional Linguistics (Australia). These 3 genre traditions differ in

both grade and function (Hyon, 1996).

Despite the variety of writing approaches that teachers have developed and adopt ed in their

classrooms, a common underlying objective is to make sure that students recognize that they

write in order to accomplish certain deliberate functions. Against this background, th is chapter

volition present a practical arroyo to teaching writing. This approach manifests a socio-cognitive

pedagogy that explicitly trains due southtudents in key thinking processes that are conducive to

developing and expressing ideas while because their audition. Drawing upon insights from

the literature of 2nd linguistic communication writing research, I will discuss guiding principles and

pedagogical implications of the arroyo. I will also highlight basic just effective strategies for

enhancing the quality of second linguistic communication writing.

12.two Second Language Writing

What makes a successful essay? In a study on various means writers can write practiced essays,

Crossley, Roscoe, and McNamara (2014) suggest that "Successful writing cannot be defined

simply through a single set of predefined features. Rather, successful writing has multiple

profiles" (p. 184). Specifically , some successful writers etch longer essays (Crossley,

Weston, McLain Sullivan, & McNamara, 2011) with more infrequent vocabulary (McNamara,

Crossley, & Roscoe, 2013), and fewer grammatical, spelling, and punctuation errors (Ferrari,

Bouffard, & Rainville, 1998). Other successful writers produce essays with more syntactically

complex sentences (Crossley, et al., 2011) and with a better command of text cohesion (Crossley, et

al., 2014). Hence, too a basic goal to write texts accurately, gratis of grammatica l mistake s,

student authors should consider stylistic factors such as choice of words, sentence complexity,

text cohesion, and length of their essays.

In fact, achieving chiliadood composition is a complex and hard task for both native speakers and

non-native speakers of English . Even if one writes in i'south own language, bailiwick is requisite

for precision and form; hence going through multiple revision due south of drafts is the norm rather than

4

exception. This difficult y to accomplish the mastery of words, even if one is familiar with these

words, was pointed out by Widdowson (1983, p. 34):

For the moment let us note that getting the better of words in writing is ordinarily a

very hard struggle. And I am thinking now of words which are in 1'southward own

language. The struggle is all the greater when they are not.

In order to teach writing effectively, teachers must therefore be explicitly cognizant of the skills

and processes that are involved. This view treats writing as a profession, a qualification to be

attained with subject and hard work, rather than an innate ability or hidden habit. Indeed,

"even in ane's native language, learning to write is something like learning a second language …

No one is a 'native speaker' of writing. For the most part, anybody learns to write at school"

(Leki, 1992, p. 10). In other words, we need to permit students know that few authors possess an in -

born 'native' command of writing English as a lingua franca (Canagarajah, 2006). If students

want to write well, they need to learn the skills explicitly and adopt deliberate strategies to

enhance their writingrand competence.

In what follows, I will outline some of the skills that are basic to competence in writing. I will

also hash out the not- linear process of academic writing that teachers can introduce to students in

writing classrooms to heighten their awareness of how writing develops. Then, I wi ll advise some

practical methods for enhancing studentsouthward' writing performance in second language classes.

12.3 Writing competence

Writing competence is near composing an effective piece of written work to fulfill a specific

purpose. For example, when writing an enterta ining and engaging story, students ado pt a

narrative style and rhetorical moves in order to fulfill the requirementdue south of a specialized context

(e.g., classroom practice, take -home assignment, or in -class examinationination ). Once students are

aware of the importance of the purpose, audience, and context of the writing, they tin apply

the following basic academic discourse skills to achieve effective implementation .

a. Paraphrase and straight quotation

5

Paraphrase is to present an original author'south ideas with different word choices and sometimes

rearrangements of word/sentence society from an original text. Direct quotation is used when

students desire to retain the original wordings and form of the quoted texts . Students should be

explicitly taught that the paraphrased portions must exist adequate when they paraphrase. In other

words, the significant conveyed by the original writer must exist captured in essence and not

distorted. Whenever students paraphrase or directly cite an original text , they demand to

acknowledge the origina50 source both in the body of the essay and the reference list. Students

should non only include the last name of the writer and the yr of the publication , but also the

page number(s) if available. They should put directly quotation marks around the original texts.

Students need to be explicitly taught that they cite or paraphrase for good reasons, such as to put

their paper in a detail context, to define key terms to establish common grandcircular between the

reader and author, to dorsum upwardly their own position, or sometimes to substantiate that opinions on a

particular topic are divided so equally to set the stage for further arguments.

b. Lexical variety

Lexical variety is an important part of southuccessful writing because information technology can make an essay appear

sophisticated and interesting. Lexical variety refers to "interesting word choice or effective utilise

of vocabulary in writing" (Ferris, 2014, p. 89). Texts with greater lexical variety tend to score

higher and leave a amend impression with the readers. Students can consult a built-in thesaurus

and dictionary in give-and-take processing software, consider the sentence context , and maintain a

consistent level of formality if they want to improve lexical variety in their writing (Ferris, 2014,

pp. 100-103). However, lexical variety solitary is insufficient for creating a good essay . Other

aspects such every bit content, development of ideas, quality of argumentation, correct use of grammar ,

and mechanics are equally important.

c. Passive voice

T eachers typically suggest students once against the passive voice in writing and advocate a rather

purist use of thdue east active phonation. In academic writing, however, the passive vocalization tin exist preferred

vi

sometimes, at least for two reasons. First, appropriate use of the passive voice can enable writers

to focus on a specific object for its importance , abroad from the actors who play a secondary role

only. Ferris (2014) gave a good example to illustrate this betoken. "Conducted simultaneously in

labs on four different continents, the experiment yielded results with international significance"

(p. 175). In this example, the writer draws the reader' due south attention to the experiment equally a

cornerstone of noteworthy results, independent of the actors who carried it out. A second reason

for the use of the passive voice is to allow writers deliberately distance themselves from their

statements. By downplaying their identities through the passive phonation, they could increase the

statements' objectivity, which is once more often advisable in scientific writing.

d. Thinking procedurees: Information focused arroyo vs. noesis transformation

approach

The data-focused approach vs. the cognition transformation approach to writing

explains differences in the thinking processes used by novice vs. experienced writers (Bereiter &

Scardamalia, 1987) during different stages of their compositions. Thursdaye information -focused

arroyo is ofttimes used past novice writers, who have a tendency to annotation downward all the facts and

information they have nigh a topic, without establishing a focused macro rhetorical goal before

they commencement to write. The macro rhetorical goal is something that a writer wants to achieve in

his/her essay overall (Chandrasegaran & Schaetzel, 2004, p. 46). It is a author's intention to

perform a serial of speech acts to influence the reader into thinking favourably of the writer'southward

thesis. It persuade s the reader into concur ing that the thesis has been supported by the arguments

and explanations put forth in the essay. We should allow students know that the macro rhetorical

goal is not the same every bit the thesis itself. The thesis refers to the main topic of the essay but.

The information-focused approach vs. the knowledge transformation approach differentiates the

novice and experienced writ ers throughout different stages of the composition, from planning, to

organizing, to writ ing/revis ing their essays . In the plan ning stage , novice writers tend to enquire

themselves: What they know nigh the topic, whether they have sufficient points for inclusion

into the essay, where they tin can find more information, or how to make a piece of i nformation

relevant to the essay topic. On the contrary, experienced writers are more concerned almost the

seven

rhetorical state of affairs (i.e., purpose, audience, and context) in writing their particular slice. They

think carefully most what information and rhetorical moves will best fit the rhetorical situation.

This is to say, they consider and rank different piece s of information or moves in how they may

help to achieve the macro rhetorical goal, and use this strategic thinking to guide the inclusion or

rejection of materials.

In the organization stage , novice writers tend to present data in a chronological club. In

dissimilarity, experienced writers tend to consider how dissimilar organization of thursdaye information help south

them fulmake full their rhetorical goal. They make sure that the organisation structure satisfies the

rhetorical situation. They anticipate what the reader would similar to know in their essays, or their

possible agreement/ disagreement with certain parts of the writing . In other words, in the writing

process, they take into account proactively the reader's expectations and reactions.

In the writing/revising stage, novice writers often have difficulty in deciding what to say next (in

the next sentence). They tend to re-read the previous sentence/clause before they determine how to

proceed. They are commonly likewise concerned about mistakes in grammar and spelling. Hence, they

tend to use simple vocabulary and sentence structures. In general, they are likely to be

preoccupied with the micro -level bug of writing. On the contrary, experienced writers, when

deciding what to say next, refer to the macro rhetorical goal, which is at a strategic level that

anticipates the reader'south expectations and possible understanding/disagreement. They ensure that the

organization and content will help them attain the one thousandoal , and they cull words that are suitable

for the overalfifty rhetorical situation. They tend to re-organize or re-write texts in larger units (e.g.,

paragraphs) guided again by the macro rhetorical goal.

Information technology should exist noted that writers exhibit different thinking processes in the information- focused

approach and the cognition transformation approach to writing. In practice, it is very difficult,

if not impossible, to observe how "novice writers make the cog nitive transition to a knowledge

transforming model, nor practise they spell out whether the procedure is the same for all learners"

(Hyland, 2011, p. xix). Depending on the genres, writers , even experienced ones, would

sometimes make use of the data- focused arroyo simply because it is more suitable, e.chiliad.,

8

when they write data reports or entries in an encyclopedia. In this kind of writing, the

author's chore is to explain and pass on the information they know about their topics.

eastward. Structuring and developing argument at the macro and micro levels

From the previous section, we acquire that an sensation to include data that suits the

macro-rhetorical goal can assist us structure and develop statementsouthward at the broad discourse level of

an essay. Apart from developing argument at the macro level, the Toulmin Model of

Argumentation shed s low-cal on how to structure arguments at the micro level. The elements in this

model of argumentation include (i) claim – a statement that the arguer wants to evidence is true; (ii)

data – the bear witness offered in support of the claim; (iii) warrant – an assumption that underlies

the merits; (iv) backing – testify for the warrant; (v) qualifier – something which is added thursdayat

in some way limits the applicability of scope of the claim; and (vi) reservation – a statement or a

situation which, if true, renders the claim invalid (Toulmin, 1958). Teachers need to explicitly

teach students how to structureastward and develop arguments at both the macro and micro levels of

their essays.

12.4 Writing process

Traditionally, many writing teachers explicate the writing process equally a linear process (Grabe &

Kaplan, 1996). For instance, Paltridge, et al. (2009) identifies four distinct sub-processe south in

writing. Commencement, inorth the conceptualizing stage, writers generate and select ideas that they can use in

their writing, and organize the ideas in a neat fashion (e.g., an essay must have an introduction,

body, and a conclusion). The 2nd sub-process is chosen formulating, which mean south putting

ideas into sentences. The third sub-processouth is revising, where writers rewrite and meliorate the

essays. The revisions can be related to the content, grammer, and mechanics. The fourth sub-

process is readinm. Writers read the essay'due south education. They read to gather data for the

essay topic. They re-read their writing to make certain that they are answering the essay'southward prompts.

The linear process model may "underconceptualize and oversimplify" the writing p rocess (Emig,

1971, p. 98). This oversimplification may be problematic because it can be inflexible and limit south

9

the freedom to explore, whereas writing in practice could exist an unstructured process of cocky-

discovery.

More recently, some writing scholars suggest that writing is a recursive, not-linear activity.

Clark and Ivanič 's (1991) piece of work highlights that both novice and experienced writers become through

various stages of the writing process several times and may not follow a fixed and particular

order. Clark and Ivanič (1991) identify onehalf-dozen (equally of import and inter-related) stages of the

writing process, involving the post-obit : accumulating knowledge and opinions (e.chiliad., doing the

necessary reading to gather information well-nigh a particular topic, or gatherink primary data

through surveys and interviews to find out the participants' opinions on a item topic);

deciding how to take responsibility: whether to mask or declare the writer's own position (e.g.,

using outset person pronouns 5due south. passive constructions in presenting the writer'southward view ); analyzing

the consignment (e.thou., the question prompt and the didactics words, and the purpose of writing

the assignment); planning (due east.g., information to be included in the consignment so as to achieve the

macro- rhetorical goal of the paper); establishing goals and purposes (e.yard., setting the macro-

rhetorical goal of the essay, and the goal of each paragraph); establishing the writer identity (e.one thousand.,

showing the westriter'south commitment to a particular position/argument); drafting (e.g., putting

together the ideas to construct an argument); consideri ng constraints of time and space (east.g.,

borderline of submission of work and thdue east word limit); formulating the writer's own ideas (due east.chiliad., the

author's own opinion on that particular topic) ; experiencing panic, hurting, and anguish (eastward.g., going

through the complicated and difficult process of writing) ; experiencing pleasure and satisfaction

(e.g., finishing the assignment, and learning something new from the writing experience );

revising (e.g., making sure that the arguments are persuasive, and the macro -rhetorical goal is

achieved) ; considerinm the reader (e.yard., making the writing reader-friendly and anticipating

possible counter-arguments from the reader ); clarifying writer commitment to his/her idea (due east.g.,

confirming the writer'southward stance about a particular issue) ; putting knowledge of the language to use

(east.g., choosing language that tin assist the author achieve the macro -rhetorical goal of the paper);

and making the copy smashing (e.k., checking the overall presentation of the paper).

12.5 Writing Tasks

x

The Australian 'educational activity and learning cycle' for genre educational activity outlines the teaching of writing

in iii distinct stages: modelling, joint construction of text, and independent structure of text

(Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). At the modeling stage, teachers introduceast the text blazon, purpose,

audition, context of the text, besides equally the vocabulary, grammar, and organizational construction ,

which are used in realizing that item text type . For example, when teaching the genre of a

complaint letter , teachers can brand use of a short authentic alphabetic character from a local paper.

Teachers can jumble the paragraphs, and and so inquire the southwardtudents to rearrange the paragraphs and

write downwards the proper lodge of a jumbled text following the situation-problem-solution-

evaluation structure. Students canorth undertake this task individually if the class size is small, or in

small groups when the form size is large.

Later the modelling phase, teachers move on to another stage called the joint negotiation of text.

This stage includes negotiation of ideas between teachers and students. T eachers can include

activities such equally class discussions and role plays, and so as to help students begin and gather

possible ideas for writing. Teacherdue south and students co-construct an essay in the same genre that

they learned earlier in the modelling stage.

The stage of independent construction of text comes later the joint negotiation of text. Teachers

should explicitly tell students the purpose of writing the particular essay, which may be neglected

past some novice teachers. After brainstorming some ideas on the essay topic, students will

independently etch their own essays . When the kickoff draft is completed, teachers may

conduct in -class trained peer review sessions and teacher -educatee conferencing sessions exterior

of classroom hours. These sessions are important because teachers and peer reviewers volition exist

able to provide constructive feedback and suggestions to the educatee writers . T eachers must

provide training to students before they conduct the peer reviews, as trained peer review

feedback tin positively affect the quality of postal service-revision drafts and the student-writers' revision

typesouthward (Min, 2006). Student writers will be able to identify the areas of improvement, which t hey

may act on when they revise their written work.

12.half dozen Enhancing Second Language Writing Functioning

xi

Students who are adamant to improve the quality of their academic writing should be

"prepared to change their habitual approach to writing" (Chandrasegaran, 2001, p. vi). In other

words, some students would need to move abroad from the information focused arroyo to

writing (i.e., simply giving information almost what they know near the topic without

because the readers). Insteadvertizing, they need to adopt an culling approach to writing that

emphasizes an sensation of the purpose and audience of the writing . Students would need to

larn to become aware of the thinking processes that accept place in the writing. Contempo research

has indicated that the socio-cerebral approach to writing can be constructive in enhancinthou pupil

performance in writing English language equally a second language. In the post-obit, I will discuss practical

strategies that teachers tin can introduce to students in the writing classroom with an objective to

improving the studentsouth' operation in writing.

a. United states ing southward ocio -cognitive approach to west riting

Cognitive and genre theories are mutual approaches to teachinyard academic writing to students at

upper primary and secondary schools , and in university - level ESL writing courses. However, the

cognitive approach to teaching writinone thousand focuses on idea gen eration and planning strategies. This

approach neglects socio- cultural factors, such equally the target readers' possible reaction to texts

(Hyland, 2002). The genre arroyo to teaching writing focuses on rhetorical moves and

organization construction (Sawyer & Watson, 1989), rather than the thinking processes that are

involved in the enactment of the discourse moves (Chandrasegaran, 2013). The prescriptive

nature of a genre arroyo to writing may inhibit students' creativity (Hyland, 2002).

Motivated past the limitations of cerebral and genre approaches to writing pedagogy,

Chandrasegaran (2013) suggests a socio -cognit ive approach to writing, which takes into account

the socio-cultural contexts, thinking processes in enacting each genre practice, and reader

expectations, to overcome the shortcomings of the cerebral and genre approaches. Studies have

suggested that the utilize of a socio -cogrand nitive approach to teaching writing has positive results in

improving the students' writing. For example, Graham, Harris, & Bricklayer (2005) pointed out that

third- grade struggling students in the United States, who wereast explicitly taught the thinking

processes and the structure of genres, wrote "longer, more complete, and qualitatively better"

12

narratives and persuasive writing (p. 234). This is a result of the self -regulatory thinking

processes embedded in the 3-stride planning strategies "Option my ideas; Organize my notes;

Write and say more" (p. 217), with peer support and collaboration in the planning stage. With

explicit pedagogy of genre and a socio-cultural approach to writing, Chandrasegaran and Yeo

(2006) establish that Secondary iii (i.e., 9th-course) students in Singapore showed an

improvement in writing narratives in terms of setting the rhetorical goal. In contempo studies,

Chandrasegaran (2013) and Chandrasegaran, Kong, and Chua (2007) found that secondary 3

(i.e., ninth-grade ) students in a Singapore school improved in expository writing. Specifically,

through teachers' guided course discussions and explicit educational activity of thinking processes in the

enactment of genre practices, the students raised their awareness of the social context of the texts,

likewise equally reader and writer roles, and they showed improvements in discourse moves such as

stating and elaborating claims besides every bit countering opposing views.

Thinking processes, embedded in cognition transformation, are important in implementing the

socio-cognitive approach to writing . Th ese thinking processes refer to how students plan,

organize, write, and revise their essays . They help determine what information should exist

included in the essay in order to fit the macro rhetorical goal. One time the unlike pieces of

data are determined, presenting them in a coherent form is a challenge to many students

during the writing process. Understanding the features of a coherent text is the subject field of the adjacent

section.

b. Agreement features that make a text coherent

Cognition of coherence is an important gene in the students' power to produce coherent texts

(Bereiter & Sca rdamalia, 1987). R esearch studies have shown that teachers demand to aid students

sympathize the meaning of coherence from a narrow sense (i.eastward., connectedness between

sentences) to a broader sense (i.e., linking the ideas in a text at a soapbox level to create

meanings for the readers) (Johns, 1986; Lee, 2002). Coherenc e may seem like an abstract

concept that is difficult to teach and acquire. However, it is possible to describe coherence in a

structural framework. It has five common features: Macro-structure, information structure,

proposition development, cohesive devices , and metadiscourse markers (Lee, 2002). Macro-

thirteen

structure is almost the outline of a text. For case, the outline of a complaint letter is situation-

problem-solution-evaluation. The outline of a story is onset-complication-resolution. Information

structure is about presenting old (given) information before introducing new information. For

example, teachers can show two sentences to students: (a) Peter has ii children. (b) Thursdayey are

John and Mary. In this example, the writer should present the sentence with "ii children"

(given information) before introducing "John and Mary" (new information) to refer to the "ii

children." Suggestion development can be challenging to many ESL students, equally they tend to

land the proposition without elaboration of ideas. For example, "Free public transport is good to

the residents." This statement is a proposition without elaboration of ideas. Educatee writers are

advised to add support to the argument such as "With coin saved on transport, residents can

now spend more coin on other appurtenances and services." Cohesive devices aid establish

relationships between different sentences. Examples of cohesive devices include pronouns,

conjunctions, repetition, superordinates/hyponymy (east.g., animals/cats), and southwardynonyms/antonyms.

Another characteristic that can used to develop coherence in writing is metadiscourse markers, which

some students normally confuse with cohesive devices. Metadiscourse markings are used to help

readers organize, interpret, and evaluate information. Examples of one thousandetadiscourse markers

include logical connectives (e.grand., therefore, but), sequencers (e.g., firstly, secondly, finally),

certainty markers (due east.1000., certainly, no doubtfulness), and hedges (e.chiliad., can, may, it could exist the case

that…).

c. Adopting good editing s trategies

Careful editing is important considering a well-crafted essay requite s a positive impression to the

reader that the writer is competent. Second language writing researchers (encounter for example, Ferridue south,

2014) suggest useful strategies for good editing that can enhance the effectiveness of the written

piece of work. First, students should effort to finish their writing earlier rather than wait until the last infinitesimal

before starting. It is considering expert w riters rely on effective editing and will allow sufficient time

for it. Second, information technology is advisable to read the limerick aloud. When writers read aloud their texts,

they are more likely to detect problematic sentences, e.yard., those compriseing missing words or

unneeded repetitions of ideas. Through reading alou d, student writers can more easily place

the bad sentences. Third, students may consider using a word procedureor' s editing tools to bank check

fourteen

for grammatical, spelling, and typographical errors. These give-and-take processors tin identify some of

the surface level errors effortlessly. Students may consider the software'south suggested corrections.

If they are not sure most certain corrections, they tin cheque the dictionary or other tools. Lastly,

for long term writing development, students are brash to keep track of their fault patterns.

They tin can keep a log book and record their recurring errors. They may aim to address a few errors

at a time and review advisable grammar rul es if necessary. Students may exist overwhelmed if

they have to accost a big number of errors in their compositions every time.

12.7 Pedagogical Principles of the Socio-cerebral Approach to Academic Writing

The process-oriented approach and the genre approach to pedagogy writing take been widely

adopted in writing classrooms for the by two decades. These app roaches have not included the

setting of the macro- rhe torical goal in writing and have not emphasized the sparsemale monarch processes

involved in the enactment of the genre practice. For every essay, we should include but 1

macro- rhetorical goal. It is crucial t o establish the macro-rhetorical goal of the essay because it

specifies the bending that the essay is going to take and directs the path of the whole essay . It is

of import that nosotros explicitly teach students the thinking processes in plan ning, organizing,

writing, and revising their essays. In the following, implications and associated pedagogical

principles (see bullet points beneath) of the socio -cognitive arroyo to academic writing are

suggested.

a. Instructor s need to explain the purpose of writing to the students

• Make sure students understand that establishing the macro rhetorical goal and purposes of

writing is an essential part of the writing procedure.

• Ensure that students recognize the functions of academic writing. Later on that, they may begin

to appreciate its importance in writing.

• Plan activities that require students to identify the purpose of writing at the modelling, joint

construction, and contained writing stages.

b. Writing lessons w ould address the knowledge-transform ation approach to writing

fifteen

• Teach the knowledge -transformation approach to writing with a focus of instituteing the

macro-rhetorical goal of the essay.

• Explicitly teach students the t hinking processes in planning, organizing, writing, and revising

the essay using the knowledge-transformation approach to writing.

• Create class activities that heighten students' awareness of the differences between the

information-focused arroyo and the knowledge-transform ation approach to writing.

c. Second language writers' writing performance can be enhanced past understanding

coherence in a broader sense

• Teac h the features of a coherent text at a discourse level and highlight the differences in

meaning betwixt metadiscourse markers and cohesive devices in writing.

• Encourage students to cocky-edit their texts by reading aloud and self -evaluating their writing

using a coherence checklist.

• Programme peer review activities, focusing on the development of coherence in writing. Peer

reviewers tin can also comment on the macro-rhetorical goal of their peer's essays.

d. Writing is a complex activity

• Teach students that writing is a non-linear process involving humany stages, not limited to

conceptualizing, formulating, reading and revising.

• Recognize that students volition run across difficulties during the writing processes such as

'setting the macro rhetorical goal ,' 'establishing writer identity,' and 'considering the reader.'

• Programme grouping activities that heighten students' awareness of the nature of writing. Help students

develop an agreement that pre-writing, drafting, and revising cannot be separated from

each other into neat independent stages.

Traditional approaches to instruction L2 writing – the controlled limerick approach , the

rhetorical part approach, the process-approach, and the genre arroyo – have strengths merely

may not be sufficiently effective as writing education. Teaching students the rhetorical moves

and arrangement structure also every bit helping students in idea generation and planning is

necessary but not sufficient in writing classrooms. The reason is that these devices alone do not

consider reader expectations, socio-cultural factors , and key thinking processes involved in the

sixteen

writing. The more recent socio- cognitive approach is a comparatively strategic arroyo to

teaching writing, which highlights the importance of explain ing the purpose of writing to the

students in terms of social impact . This is to say, students write not but because they are told to

write, just they write in society to fulfil a social function through the writing. For instance, the

function for writing a story is to entertain the readers or make the readers admire the characters

of the story.

Knowledge-transformation is an important implementation device in the socio -cognitive

arroyo to writing. Teachers need to explicitly teach students how to establish the macro-

rhetorical goal of an essay. When students plan, organize, write/revise, they n eed to encertain that

the relevant data helpsouth them achieve the macro- rhetorical goal. By adopting the socio-

cognitive approach to writing, students consciously define their goal as touch on on the intended

readers. In organizing and presenting th eir ideas, they need to learn how to make a text coherent,

which includes but goes across using cohesive devices. In this regard , they need to have a good

understanding of the macrostructure of the genre, data structure, proposition development,

and the appropriate use of metadiscourse karkers.

Writing teachers should emphasize to students that a expert piece of writing cannot be produced in

one typhoon; information technology has to go through multiple times of revision. It is also very important for students to

prefer self -editing strategies in all t heir written work. They can read aloud their writing so that

they tin detect the problematic parts of their writing. They have to first to programme their writing

early and finish their writing early so that they accept sufficient time to revise their work. During

the cocky-editing process, they would need to revise both the surface level errors such every bit grammar

and mechanics, every bit well equally bug at the discourse level, such every bit how they present themselves in

their writing, the tone they employ, the evolution of ideas, the contextualization of ideas, and the

use of language, data, and bear witness that their readers find persuasive. Self-editing would event in

educatee ownership of and responsibility for learning (Swaffield, 2011).

Some writing researchers accept constitute that students benefit from trained peer feedback reviews

(Min, 2006). The positive results of the related studies indicate that peer feedback leads to better

texts and improves the quantity and quality of peer talk . The peer feedback helps students to

17

clarify any possible confusion the readers may have, and help refine the language used in the

writing. Peer atomic number 26edback activity is useful because students tin can readily relate to their peers'

opinions on the aforementioned topic. When students review their peers' essays, they learn from their peers

about how to yardake the writing reader friendly. Giving peer feedback is also good in training

their disquisitional thinking. In nearly state of affairss the peer review activity enhances pupilsouth' ability to

revise and improve their writing. Given that humany students are quite tech -savvy these days,

teachers may consider using peer cess soft ware (east.grand., PeerceptivTM ) to implement the peer

review activeness. The computer-mediated peer feedback system may motivate students by

allowing them to requite and view peer feedback on multiple drafts of their writing anytime and

anywhere when in that location is Internet admission. More chiefly, calculator- mediated feeddorsum solves

the problem of saving 'face,' which can be an issue if peer reviews are carried out on a face-to-

confront ground. With the use of the peer assessment software, students' names could be anonymized.

Thus, they are more likely to give their honest peer feedback every bit their names would not be

disclosed to their peers. The estimator-mediated feedback may motivate students socially to

reviseastward their written work, since this feedback is generally obtained from a wider readership that

includes not only the teachers but as well a peer grouping of significant size. Students, indeed authors

in general, volition pay more attention to their writing because of a wide readership.

12.8 Conclusion

"No one is a 'native speaker' of writing" (Leki, 1992, p. x). Teachers need to allow students know

that there are no 'native-similar ' standards when it comes to bookish writing. In education writing,

we need to explicitly teach the writing processes and the specific strategies to raise students'

writing competence. It is useful for writing teachers to learn the various approaches to didactics

writing. Notwithstanding, teachers need to sympathise that helping students in idea generation and in

planning also every bit teaching the rhetorical moves of the particular genres alone are inadequate in

helping students ameliorate their writing. Teachers also need to teach students the socio - cerebral

approach to writing, which takes into consideration readersouth' expectations, socio -cultural contexts,

and thinking processes involved in planning, organizing, and writing/revising the essays.

Teachers need to make clear to the students that writing is a recursive, complex activity. In society

to move forward, nosotros need to re-read and revise our writing. A good piece of writing has to become

18

through multiple times of revision. This applies non merely to novice writers, but to experienced

writers as well . Understanding this can help analyze a misconception that many students may

have – that simply non-skillful writers will need significant revisions to their piece of work.

The socio -cerebral approach to writing ensures tlid students will constitute the macro - rhetorical

goal of the essay, and all the information in the essay contributes to achieving this purpose. For

the readers, they will be able to grasp the one thing or 1 key bulletin that they can accept away

from the essay.

References

Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written communication . Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum.

Canagarajah, A. S. (2006). Negotiating the local in English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of

Practical Linguistics, 26, 197-218.

Chandrasegaran, A. (2001). Call back your way to effective writing (2 nd ed.). Singapore: Prentice

Hall.

Chandrasegaran, A. (2013). The effect of a socio-cerebral arroyo to teaching writing on

opinion support moves and topicality in students' expository essays. Linguistics and

Education, 24(ii), 101-111.

Chandrasegaran, A., Kong, C. One thousand. M., & Chua, D. F. (2007). Intervention in the instruction of

expository writing. Unpublished enquiry written report. Singapore: Centre for Inquiry in

Pedagogy and Practice, National Institute of Pedagogy.

Chandrasegaran, A., & Schaetzel, K. (2004). Think your way to constructive writing (3rd ed.).

Singapore: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Chandrasegaran, A., & Yeo, S. C. (2006). Teaching graphic symbol delineation in narrative writing. In T.

S. C. Farrell (Ed.), Linguistic communication instructor research in Asia (pp. 7-20). Alexandria, VA: TESOL.

Cheung, Y. L. (2011). Teacher training for constructive writing instruction: Recent trends and future

directions. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences Journal, 15 (1), 531-534.

Clark, R., & Ivani č, R. (1991). Consciousness-raising about the writing process. In C. James, &

P. Garrett (Eds.), Language awareness in the classroom (pp. 168-185). London: Longman.

19

Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (1993). Introduction: How a genre arroyo to literacy can transform

the manner writing is taught. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The powers of literacy: A

genre approach to education writing (pp. 1-21). Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.

Crossley, S. A., Roscoe, R., & McNamara, D. S. (2014). What is successful writing? An

investigation into the multiple waydue south writers tin can write successful essays. Written

Advice, 31(two) , 184-214.

Crossley, S. A., Weston, J., McLain Sullivan, Southward. T., & McNamara, D. S. (2011). The

development of writing proficiency as a part of form level: A linguistic analysis.

Written Advice, 28(iii) , 282-311.

Emig, J. (1971). The composing processes of twelfth graders. Urbana, IL: National Quango of

Teachers of English language.

Ferrari, M., Bouffard, T., & Rainville, L. (1998). What makes a good writer? Differences in good

and poor writers' self-regulation of writing. Instructional Science, 26 (6), 473-488.

Ferris, D. R. (2014). Language power: Tutorials for writers. Boston, New York: Bedford/St.

Martin's.

Graham, S., Harris, M. R., & Mason, L. (2005). Improving the writing performance, knowledge,

and self-efficacy of struggling young writers: The effects of cocky-regulated strategy-

development. Gimmicky Educational Psychology, 30 (2), 207-241.

Grabe, West., & Kaplan, B. K. (1996). Theory and practise of writing: An applied linguistic

perspective. New York: Longman.

Hyland, K. (2002). Teaching and researching writing. Harlow, UK: Pearson.

Hyla nd, K. (2011). Learning to write: bug in theory, enquiry, and pedagogy. In R. M.

Manchόn (Ed.), Learning-to-write and writing-to-larn in an additional language (pp. 17-

35). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Hyon, S. (1996). Genres in three traditions: Implications for ESL. TESOL Quarterly, xxx (4), 693-

722.

Johns, A. M. (1986). Cohere nce and Bookish Writing: Some Definitions and Suggestions for

Educational activity. TESOL Quarterly, 20 (2), 247-265.

Lee, I. (2002). Didactics coherence to ESL students: a classroom inquiry. Journal of Second

Language Writing, 11(ii) , 135-159.

20

Lee, I. (2008). Understanding teachers' written feedback practices in Hong Kong secondary

classrooms. Journal of 2nd Language Writing, 17 (2), 69-85.

Leki, I. (1992). Understanding ESL Writers: A guide for teachers. Portsmouth, New Hampshire:

Boynton/Cook Publishers.

McNamara, D. South., Crossley, Southward. A., & Roscoe, R. (2013). Natural language processing in an

intelligent writing strategy tutoring arrangement. Behavior Inquiry Methods, 45(2), 499-515.

Min, H. T. (2006). The effects of trained peer review on EFL students' revision types and writing

quality. Periodical of Second Language Writing, 15(two), 118-141.

Paltridge, B., Harbon, L., Hirsh, D., Shen, H. Z., Stevenson, M., Phakiti, A., & Woodrow, 50.

(Eds.). (2009). Teachi ng academic writing: An introduction for teachers of 2d

language writers. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Sawyer, W. & Watson, K. (1989). Further questions on genre. English in Commonwealth of australia, ninety (1) , 27-42.

Silva, T. (1990). Second language composition instruction: developments, issues, and directions

in ESL. In B. Kroll (Ed.), 2d linguistic communication writing: Enquiry insights for the classroom.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Swaffield, S. (2011). Getting to the centre of authentic Assessment for learning. Cess in

Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, xviii(4), 433-449.

Toulmin, S. Due east. (1958). The uses of argument . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Widdowson, H. G. (1983). New starts and different kinds of failure. In A. Freedman, I. Pringle,

& J. Yalden (Eds.), Learning to write: Start language/2nd language . New York:

Longman.

  • Idla Fitri Linggarni

The objective of this inquiry were to improve students' writing skill with implementation on 9th grade of SMP Negeri ii Buduran in the bookish year 2019/2020. The inquiry aim to find whether there was whatever meaning outcome in learning achievement of writing skill between an ordinary pedagogy learning with taught past using picture serial. The groundwork of this inquiry has been conducted on 9th course of SMP Negeri 2 Buduran with loftier significance of students' score before and after using picture series media. The researcher choose a quantitative method in this research and the result of the test was analyzed using t-test formula and the effect was high level it ways authentic for the instrument. The students' mean pre-exam and mail service-test score were showed that there was deviation of the score which is increase the students' writing skill using picture show series. The students' mean pre-test score is (67.66) and the mean post-examination score is (81.34).

This study identifies multiple profiles of successful essays via a cluster analysis approach using linguistic features reported by a variety of natural language processing tools. The findings from the study indicate that at that place are four profiles of successful writers for the samples analyzed. These 4 profiles are linguistically distinct from one another and demonstrate that skillful human raters examine a number of different linguistic features in a variety of combinations when assessing writing proficiency and assigning loftier scores to contained essays (regardless of the scoring rubric considered). The writing styles in the 4 clusters can be described equally activeness and delineation style, academic style, accessible style, and lexical fashion. The study provides empirical bear witness that successful writing cannot be defined only through a single set of predefined features, but that, rather, successful writing has multiple profiles. While these profiles may overlap, each profile is distinct.

  • Ken Hyland

This book provides an authoritative, readable and up-to-appointment guide to the major themes and developments in electric current writing theory, research and teaching. Written in a articulate, accessible style, it covers theoretical and conceptual issues, addresses current questions and shows how inquiry has fed into land-of-the-art teaching methods, practices, materials and software applications. Thoroughly updated and revised, this second edition also contains a new chapter on important issues in writing such as genre, context and identity.